Dissertation on Morality

In discussing the nature of morality there exists two major positions that an individual can take. One can argue for the existence of a universal, autonomous body of moral codes that pertains to all possible situations, one that is independent, unchangeable and timeless. One could also argue for a subjective morality, that is, a case where morality is owed to an immediate rational deliberation in the name of the collective good. Following is a discussion of both of these notions as they pertain to the work of two very influential philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Thomas Hobbes, known for his book The Leviathan, argues for a subjective morality. Hobbes saw morality only as an incidental condition rising as the individual attempts to remove themselves from the ravenous state of nature. Locke, on the other hand, believed morality to be a universal body handed down from god and applied by an exercise of reason.

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To best understand the position of Hobbes and his moral philosophy it is important that he is introduced as a political philosopher. Hobbes was interested in the development of a commonwealth, with a dominant sovereign, and its capacity to offer the individual increased power and security. Only by entering this commonwealth and subjecting oneself to the decree of the sovereign, Hobbes felt, did the need for a moral concept arise. The route to Hobbes' morality, therefore, begins with his understanding of the individual and the associated state of nature.

For Hobbes, the state of nature is the condition in which humans exist without institutions or collectively agreed upon authorities, it is selfish, violent and chaotic. The state of nature is this way, according to Hobbes, due to the innate nature of human beings. Hobbes held that humans are essentially physical machines cared only to satiate their needs; they desperately seek what they require and consider others merely as obstacles to their goals. In the state of nature Hobbes believed this innate human way ruled, and because no preconceived notions about human worth exist, morality immerges as backward and irrelevant while hostility reigns. This can be further understood in a quote from Hobbes himself, which reads "to this war of every man against every man, this also is consequent; that nothing can be unjust."

Hobbes also sought to explain the kinds of actions humans are capable of. He felt that each person was capable of two kinds of action, vital actions and animal actions. Vital actions referred to the involuntary actions of the physical body; they include elements such as the beating of the heart, the lungs facilitating oxygen exchange, and the elimination of waste. Animal actions, more importantly, describe human voluntary motion, they are believed to originate in the mind and give rise to voluntary actions. Hobbes termed this voluntary action human endeavor, of which he claimed there were two kinds, appetite and aversions. When human behavior is directed toward that which causes it, the behavior is said to be a reflection of an appetite. When human behavior involves striving to avoid that which causes it, the behavior is said to reflect an aversion. The significance of Hobbes' notion of endeavors is that appetites and aversions that are unbound represent the state of nature. That is to say, the defining feature of Hobbes' state of nature is the fact that in such a state humans live only to quench appetites and remove aversions, and furthermore, they are free to do anything in their capacity to achieve this goal. Humans are free in the sense that, as mentioned, no assumptions pre-exist. One can note the particular intensity of this notion from Hobbes' own words, which state "The passions that incline men to peace, are fear of death; desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their industry to attain them."

After describing Hobbes' notions thus far, one may now turn to his concepts of the commonwealth. Hobbes felt that the highest achievement of civility came a humans agreed to enter into a collective society, or commonwealth. In a commonwealth Hobbes stated that each member agreed to give up a portion of the freedom of will they maintained in they state of nature. The condition of one individual surrendering part of his freedom is met in the commonwealth by the condition of another surrendering an equal portion of their freedom, this is met to reduce the chaos and remove one from the state of nature. For example, one agrees to the boundaries of his neighbors land, and in return his neighbor agrees to the boundaries of his land. In defining their property both men no longer have to fight constantly for the basics of survival, they now have the opportunity to produce excess, survive longer, and live happier as they are now more secure.

From this notion of the commonwealth one can now discuss Hobbes' ideas of morality. Morality for Hobbes arises in the rational decision of the human creature to escape the state of nature and enter the commonwealth. That is to say, in the commonwealth the individual assumes a series of laws or agreements, which increases their security. Breaking these laws then becomes the greatest sin as in such a case those involved are returned to the brutish state of nature. In the commonwealth the individual must adhere to two central principles, the right of nature and the law of nature. The right of nature stipulates that even in the commonwealth your unlimited in actions when your life depends on it. The law of nature has three parts. The first stipulates that you must not take your own life, and furthermore you must choose the best means to preserve it. The second stipulates that one must practice compromise and allot as much freedoms to them as they would allot to others. The third law stipulates that the individual maintain the agreements made of the commonwealth. These laws provide the boundaries of Hobbes' commonwealth; they are the lines separating society and the state of nature.

Morality, therefore, according to Hobbes involves living by these laws and thus enabling the individual to avoid the state of nature. In addition to these fundamental laws the collective group also agrees to a number governing sub laws, they give full power to a sovereign to enforce these laws, with the ultimate objective of maintaining the compromise of freedoms. With this, one sees "as the essence of Hobbes" theories subjectivity in the fact that laws are developed by the collective, for the collective.

Problems, however, exist with Hobbes' theories. Hobbes fails to account for all the capacities of humanity and as such his ideas fail to depict an accurate picture of human civilization. Hobbes' most fundamental error is his exclusion of human reason. From his exclusion of objective human reason, as something driving the search for pure knowledge, one can attack his model of the state of nature and by extension the concepts that follow from it.

By purposing that humans are driven simply by the desire to fill the void created by needs, Hobbes fails in attempting to account fully for human voluntary motion. One cannot claim that humanity in its best exercise of reason aims to merely reduce obstacles, and at the same time say they may produce excess in this negative space. Moreover, the fact that excesses do exist adds further controversy to Hobbes' theory of the productivity of the commonwealth. These excesses can be seen in the expression and development of pure, as apposed to applied knowledge. To account for these excesses one must add a concept to human nature that dissolves Hobbes notion of the state of nature, the concept that humans are active beyond the realm of practical gain. This new definition of endeavor or voluntary motion implies that the active pursuit of pure elements supersedes need satisfaction. If need satisfaction was utmost, one becomes caught in a circle, perpetually satisfying needs from which stagnation develops and no excesses grow.

From these new definitions, in the revised state of nature individuals seek to constantly improve and are never satisfied with just enough. This by extension suggests an innate value for all things, as the world and its inhabitants draw enough worth for one to desire to improve upon them. The ravenous state of nature as described by Hobbes therefore is incomplete and as such not telling of humanity.

 The fact that humans are capable of diverging values further alters Hobbes notions, particularly its subjectivity. The existence of human value diversity suggests that in our active efforts to constantly improve, one is uncovering new territory and not creating it. This is implied because the error that exists between individual values, if our efforts are progressive, suggest an attempt to merge to the same answers. What one is attempting to uncover in a constant quest, therefore, is something timeless and universal, an objective not subjective law that exists beyond the individual. These kinds of efforts can be understood with a brief look at the teachings of Aristotle. Aristotle held that morality existed as a mean between excess and deficiency. That is, to live morally one should search for the middle ground, for example continence as apposed to incontinence or insensibility. Some individuals fall into incontinence, some into insensibility, yet they will always push to reach the timeless, objective mean of continence as it offers the best, most consistent life. One can then extend Hobbes' morality beyond upholding subjective creations, and claim it as part of the objective truth that individuals seek. One now values humans in as much as they value themselves. The equality in value across humans arises because equality is the mean between inequality and honor. Furthermore, equality alone allows for constant improvement as humans work with and not against one another. This co-operation is different then the agreements of Hobbes' commonwealth because humans are now attempting to improve one another not simply to stay out of each others way. Acting moral becomes an end in and of itself. Finally, according to the revisions on Hobbes' theories, the commonwealth is not a different kind of human existence but an improvement in degree only.

The second philosopher to be discussed is John Locke. Like Hobbes, Locke had developed his own political and moral theories, however, they were very much the contrary to Hobbes'. The most fundamental principle of Locke's morality is its autonomous and objective nature. Locke's morality in this sense exists as an equal with the natural development of other institutions including religion and politics. Locke's notion of the natural condition of man holds that, although there are no agreed upon institutions, humans are free to do as the chose only within the bounds of reason. This can be best understood within Locke's own words, they are "To understand political power, right, and derive it from its original, we must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions" within the bounds of the law of nature"‚ - From god, Locke argued, we have inscribed within us all that is moral and just and we uncover this through an exercise of reason. In this light one can see that, because we come from an omnipotent maker, and that we exist under their providence and creation, some morality always persists even in the natural condition. We uncover this persisting morality in our exercise of reason, given to us by god. Locke states this in the quote "and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will consult it". Some of these moral precepts of Locke's natural condition of man include the notion that you cannot kill yourself, or other's unless your life depends on it as were our maker's property and about his actions. This notion also rests on the precept that were all the same and equal as individuals as our creator has made us all equally, therefore we inherently must maintain a certain degree of concern for another's well being.

Locke did maintain that laws are to be enforced, even in a state of nature, yet this chore is up to each individual in an exercise of reason. In Locke's society therefore, all power is not given to an all-powerful sovereign. Instead, an impartial judge is appointed who must answer to the people as a whole; this is to facilitate a balance between reparation and restraint. That is, in Locke's society two rights exist, that of reparation and that of restraint. Reparation allows one to punish a transgressor of others and society, while restraint ensures the punishment fits the crime. Fundamentally, what this means is that the appointed judge can forgive the offender if it is best for society. Locke also imposed several conditions on man in a society. First, he stated that no man can judge his own case of transgression for his own self love will bias him. Second, he developed an argument for capital punishment. This argument stated that any individual committing a relatively serious crime, murder for example, removes himself from gods prescribed humanity and can thus be punished as such.

From his theorizing, Locke maintained one very fundamental problem to explain. Because Locke felt that, as revealed through scripture, god gave the earth to all mankind in common he had to explain the element of private ownership. Locke explains this by suggesting that we take for ourselves for the duration of our life that which we have worked for. That is to say, Locke felt that we all have an inborn property in our own person, and therefore, by the labor of this body we work to earn possessions such as hunting and fishing. Locke did describe an exception to this rule, which is, in circumstances where resources are particularly low, the right of restraint swells. That is to say, in a case of impending starvation one may freely steal bread to feed their family. Furthermore, Locke put a restriction on how much an individual can amass or own. He held that it was wrong for any individual to take from the world more than they need, including land and food resources. If one takes more than they can use, others must go without, moreover, wasting that which god has provided and given us reason to use properly is a transgression against this providence and society.

This objective tune of morality is both prescriptively and descriptively convincing. The reason that Locke speaks of is an undeniable element of humanity, and the term reason by definition suggests the pursuit of something objective, not emotional or subjective. Furthermore, the strength of reason that Locke explains, the kind that separates humans from animals, accounts for the possibility that humans act upon the world, they don't just react. This notion of the active human is compelling as it accounts for all the successes of history, including artistic achievement and medical discoveries, while discrediting the notion of negative ambition as no excess could come from this.

Prescriptively Locke's theories are also very seductive. In purposing that we live in the name of our own preservation as well as the preservation of other's one is inspired. Living with this kind of respect for the world and the people in it, while adhering to the objective search to better respect this world suggests the opportunity maintained in a society can increase exponentially. Each individual is working toward the same goal along the same principles.

Locke's notions have also been to a certain extent shared by many influential thinkers. Some of the thinkers that share a view akin to Locke's include St Thomas Aquinas and Plato. In his doctrine of natural law Aquinas describes a similar concept of moral law, he saw it as something given to us from god that reason allows us to discover. It is not, however, the reliance of god that gives the ideas of both men the power in objectivity. More important than the belief in its roots is the adherence to reason itself, this practiced by all people must by definition must guide all view a particular circumstance equally, squashing biases and thus inequality. Of course, no human can always judge completely free of their own emotional biases. This emotional bias does not, however, have to rule humanity. If humans pursue reason objectivity will persist because in that pursuit a certain level of consistency is maintained.

Plato offers a much less theological approach to objective morality. Plato theorized about an ideological world of forms. This world maintained no direct connection to the physical world and it held in it the perfect concept of all human pursuits. Plato held that it was the human responsibility to seek to reduce ignorance of this world in order to best imitate it, which included universal concepts of morality. For both Plato and Locke, the individual must, through the exercise of reason, seek to uncover a persisting moral world. This moral world then units all people in the objective pursuit of it, and regardless of its origins humans begin to work with, and for one another.

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Dissertation on Malcolm X

Malcolm X was one of the most influential Black Americans to advocate of Black Nationalism during the 1950's and 1960's. He transformed himself from a petty Criminal, into a defender of the rights of Blacks. He was also a pioneer of self defense against white violence.

Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, in Omaha Nebraska. His father was a follower of Marcus Garvey, a black leader who worked to establish close political and economical ties to Africa. In 1929, he watched his house burn down by the hands of the white supremacist Ku Klux Klan. His father was found dead after being run over by a train in 1931.

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Malcolm believed that white racist did this, and after this incident, he became a rebellious youth. His mother was committed to a mental hospital when he was 12. He spent the rest of his childhood in foster homes, and became discouraged by the racial prejudice around him, such that he was told that becoming a lawyer was unrealistic. After a few years in foster homes, he became a good student, and he was voted class president.

He attended school in East Lansing, Michigan, however, he dropped out in 9th grade. He moved to Boston, and then to New York when he was 16 with relatives, and became involved in the Harlem underground. He went to prison for fourteen accounts 8-10 years for burglary during 1946 and 1952. While in prison he was read up on and converted to the Nation of Islam, known as Black Muslims, which was led by the Honorable Elijah Muhammad. They taught that white people were devils. He replaced the surname "little" with the "X", symbolizing his bad habits of smoking, drinking, sex with white women, and drugs.

He was a powerful speaker, and expressed his anger of the troubled Black people in America. He spoke with bitterness, against the white exploitation of black people, and he developed a brilliant platform style, which soon won him large and dedicated followers. He founded mosques in Boston, Philadelphia, and Harlem, and began the Muslim newspaper "Muhammad Speaks" in 1961. For this, he was named the National Spokesman, and awarded the Mosques No. 7 in Harlem, the most important pastorate after the Chicago headquarters.

Malcolm X quickly became the Nation of Islam's most important minister. He was a fiery, urging blacks to gain their freedom anyway they could. He started to become unsatisfied with the Nation of Islam, mostly because they avoided political activity. Malcolm X rejected the black integration and non-violence as a principles, but cooperated with Martin Luther Kind, and other Civil Right Leaders who favored "militant non-violent protests", although he was disliked because he suggested violence.

An ideological split developed between Malcolm X and the more conservative Elijah Muhammad. When President Kennedy was assassinated, Malcolm stated that it was "case of chickens coming home to roost", the type of violence used against blacks. In 1963, Elijah Muhammad ordered a period of silence for Malcolm X, because of internal disputes, jealousy of Malcolm's success, and Malcolm's comments on President's Kennedy's assassination. In 1964, he left the Nation of Islam, and founded the National Mosque, Inc. He had a pilgrimage to Mecca, and embraced the universal brotherhood, where his name became "El Hajj Malik Shabazz". After this, he stated that white people were not devils, and developed a social revolution theory. In 1965, he founded the organization of Afro American Unity, to internationalize the flight of Americans Unity, and to make a cause with the third world nations.

By this time, most of the followers of the Nation of Islam had condemned Malcolm X as a hypocrite and traitor because of Elijah Muhammad, the group's leader. Malcolm X was shot during a speech in New York City on February 21, 1965. Three members of the Nation of Islam were convicted. His autobiography was released after his death, and made him an ideological hero, especially among black youth. His autobiography was written by Alex Haley. His family believes that he was assassinated for teaching Markus Garvey's ideas.

According to Malcolm X he stated, "I am not a racist. In the past I permitted myself to be used...to make sweeping indictments of all white people, the entire white race, and theses generalizations have caused injuries to some whites and perhaps did not deserve to be hurt. Because of the spiritual enlightenment which I was blessed to receive as a result of my recent pilgrimage to the Holy city of Mecca, I no longer subscribe to sweeping indictments of ant one race. I am now striving to live the life of a true...Muslim. I must repeat that I am not a racist nor do I subscribe to the tenets of racism. I can state in all sincerity that I wish nothing but freedom, justice and equality, life. liberty and the pursuit of happiness for all people." I thought I saw Malcolm as a racist in the movie. I thought that Malcolm addressed the "white man" in his speeches with great prejudice. I thought that some of the topics in which Malcolm talked about was racist, but not all of the topics in which he talked about were racist. Malcolm X at some points talked about how black people should be treated equally and how black people should not be pushed over so easily. I agree with that, but the part where he calls all white people devils and where he calls us "white men"‚ to be a disgrace to all mankind I find to be very derogatory. I realize that in today's age, it is all about getting along and all about knowing people so you can get through life the best you can no matter what kind of color you are: purple, green, black, orange, red, white, or yellow.

I thought that Islam affected Malcolm's view on race in a great deal because it through up a smoke screen so to say as an excuse of why people were being pushed over. I find that wrong and very immoral when it comes to that no matter what religion you are.

Islam made Malcolm think along with others that all white people are bad and do not trust them because they will only stab you in the back latter on. Like it or not all people do that and just not a certain race. Islam made Malcolm only see one issue at a time and not the whole picture. Not all white people are like that and not all black people are like that. The teaching of Islam did not specify what white folks were like that it just made a particular remark about a certain class with no back up type of information. Initially Malcolm X was very outspoken about anti-white and anti-integration between races. These were the fundamental beliefs of the Nation of Islam-the organization Malcolm X rose to be a national spokesperson for. It was in the last two year of his life that Malcolm X became Malik El-Shabazz. He used this name because he experienced in Mecca that all men are equal regardless of their color. He now was part of a global and color blind community. This is what he preached on his return to the U.S. and this is why, some believe, he was assassinated in 1965.

Malcolm represents a leader which all communities look up to as dynamic, intelligent, and most importantly revitalizing. The Muslims of today, from all parts of the world see Malcolm as a man who not only had strong convictions and beliefs, but was not afraid to voice them and stand up to a system which expects conformity to a certain way of thinking. Malcolm transformed himself from a street hustler to an articulate leader and was convinced that others could change for the better as well. In his autobiography he wrote: "My whole life had been a chronology of changes". When we remember Malcolm X, we cannot ignore that he did change from seeing race as a dividing issue to his final testimony as a Muslim who believed in a religion which spells out clearly that all humankind is created and judged equally.

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Dissertation on Dehydration

The amount of sweat secreted varies from individual to individual; however, everyone becomes more adapt at sweating with extended exposure to hot and humid climates. This process of heat is not unlike acclimatization to altitude. The longer you are exposed to a situation, the better your body will adapt to it. In the case of heat, it takes about two weeks to complete the acclimatization process.

This is why it is often so difficult to run in hot weather races early in the spring or summer. As our bodies adjust to running in a hot environment, our sweat volume increases and our sweat becomes more dilute.

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Along with the increase in sweat volume comes an increase in fluid loss. The more sweat we secrete, the more we become dehydrated. It is estimated that a runner loses up to 2 liters of sweat per hour on a hot day. That is a lot fluid loss that must be replaced. Drinking often (every 15 or 20 minutes) is critical to maintaining sufficient hydration. If you wait until you are thirsty, it is too late.

For most runners, it is not possible to consume as much fluid as they are losing during the run, however, sufficient fluid replacement should not be difficult after the run.

Most runners will not experience problems related to dehydration until they have lost two percent to four percent of their body weight due to fluid depletion. Of equal or greater concern is progressive dehydration. Day one our runner loses three percent of their weight to dehydration. They experience no problems and drinks as their thirst dictates. Since thirst is a poor indicator of fluid loss, our runner does not completely rehydrate and starts day two one percent dehydrated. This pattern of incomplete fluid replacement continues for a couple of days until our runner starts a day three or four percent down. This day can even be a bit cooler but our runner can't understand why they are feeling so poorly. Their pattern of incomplete rehydration has progressively gotten worse and finally resulted in a dangerous situation.

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Dissertation on Advocacy

The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term advocate as "one who pleads the case of another" (1989). The legal view of advocacy encompasses the definition of advocacy as a consultation between client and lawyer before a court proceeding (Woodrow 1997). The International Council of Nursing (ICN) has included nurse advocacy in their code since the 1970s. In recent nursing literature "nurse advocacy" has become somewhat of a buzzword connected with the concepts of nurse autonomy, ethics, moral issues and the view of patients as health consumers.

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Although the nurse that advocates for their client has no real legal standing among the health professions, the importance of such advocacy arises often as a binding, if legally un-recognized, unsaid contract between the nurse and the client.

Henderson's theory of nursing says that advocacy is "a separate identity, not included in the medical models of treatment" (Henderson, 1960). The question arises, Is Nurse based advocacy on the client's behalf more of a philosophical endeavor taken on by the nurse as an overpowering internal drive to protect the client? Or does the advocacy of the client's rights and wishes by nurses serve an ideal avenue for the lobbying of said rights in a legal and political venue? The arguments for both sides are persuasive, leaving that fine line uncrossed by either side.

Advocacy for the client has evolved throughout the years in the medical community an endeavor taken on by the professional nurse. History shows us that the archaic reverence given to physicians is slowly becoming a thing of the past. Florence Nightingale first introduced the theory of patient advocacy in an indirect manner. Her belief that "the world was unsafe, requiring that the patient be protected from its environmental and social effects on health" (Nightingale 1969) was in fact a first time recognition of patients' personal well being addressed outside the physical well being of a patient. Nightingale inadvertently planted the seed of trust between the nurse and the patient to grow a strong bond between the two. This basic belief of patient-nurse bonding has been taken as one of the fundamental standards of nursing responsibility in the modern day profession. Beginning in the 1960s, Virginia Henderson theorized that nursing should be patient led instead of institution led, meaning that the nurses responsibilities and loyalties should fall more to the actual patients wishes and concerns than that of an economically driven institution. Henderson believed that "the nature of nursing is a separate identity formed to encompass skills not included in the medical model of treatment, based upon ethical constructs, as opposed to task oriented behaviors" (Henderson, 1960). In other words, nurses have something better to offer other that bedpans and bandages.

The autonomy of the nursing profession allows the nurse to inform, instruct and speak for the individual patient. The nurse is often times put in the middle of patient’s wishes and the physician's demands. The ability to mediate such conflicts is the foundation of advocacy. Carol Willard, a nursing professor from Manchester College of Midwifery and Nursing in Manchester, England says, "autonomy of the nurse as well as the patient must be paramount in making ethical decisions regarding the capacity to determine ones own destiny" (Willard, 1995). When an otherwise healthy person is suddenly hospitalized and independence is taken away, it is taken for granted that the patient will be compliant and conform to "rules" set by his or her physician. If the patient does not agree with the action the doctors find necessary for treatment, what recourse does that patient have? Here is when the nurse advocate is to step in and speak on behalf of the patient. The true nature of nursing is to provide care and comfort to ones patient. Student nurses are taught that the welfare of the patient is always first and foremost in every aspect of care. If said patient is fearful of a possibly life-saving procedure and questions the doctor's orders, how far should the nurse go on behalf of the patient? At what level of authority does the nurse give in when advocating for a patient? Nurse Theorist Sally Gadow believes that "existential advocacy is the essence of the nurse's participation with the patient" (Gadow 1980). Gadow also believes that nursing advocacy is "based upon the principle that freedom of self-determination is the most valuable human right"(1980). While a patients right to self-determination is essential to the patient himself, criticism of that belief should be noted on the nurses behalf. Nurses must be concerned with questioning the authority of the doctor because of the ramifications and backlash that could potentially put the nurse out of a job, or at the very least, mark her as a troublemaker. Taken at the personal level of patient concern, the nurse can speak without fear of retribution, but as the nurse travels up the chain of command, the more powerful the obstacles become. The inner determination of each individual nurse comes into question here. Should the nurturing, internal drive of the nurse to protect the patient at any cost be the vehicle for advocacy? In many nursing theory frameworks this point remains undefined. Advocacy in the sense of patient-nurse bonding is an obligation of nurse professionals, but in the legal sense, advocacy takes on a whole other connotation.

To be a legal representative for the patient is far beyond the reach of an ordinary nurse. The Citizen Advocacy Information and Training (CAIT) guidelines state, "Advocates owe those they represent a duty of loyalty, confidentiality, and a commitment to be zealous in the promotion of their cause" (Willard, 1995). The CAIT also states that advocates should be unpaid and independent from any health business. The transformation of health care from compassion based service, to one of strong financial goals has brought the need for patient advocacy to the forefront of the health care systems. 

The ordinary nurse is hardly in the position to lobby for legislative laws and regulations of patients rights on a full time basis. The independent advocate is unrestrained by conflict of the subservience of nurses to doctors, therefore alleviating the fear of reprisal in a profession setting. The independent advocate is free of emotional attachment to patients that a nurse would have while caring for the sick and dying. The independent advocate would be outside the realm of office politics and doctors egos.

Most importantly the independent advocate would be better positioned to drive patient rights home to congress, as having the time to commit to such an undertaking is not a privilege most nurses have. The benefit of independent advocacy would also address that very problem of time constraint and quality of care often imposed on over-worked and underpaid nurses. The duty of beneficence to the patient is one a nurse uses on a personal level, creating that unbreakable bond so needed by those who cannot care for themselves.

The concept of nurse advocacy is not recognized by the law (Mallik & McHale 1995). The nurse must cross the fine line of advocacy carefully. Without specific guidelines and knowledge, the potential for accountability weighs heavily upon the nurses shoulders. One wrong move and a nurse's career may be over, another wrong move and a patient's life may be over. Advocacy has a definite place in the nursing profession, the voice of the patient must be heard above all other clamor. If the nurse is not empowered enough to lay it on the line, neither will the patient be empowered enough to tow the line.

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Dissertation on Gun Control

The issue of gun control has been one of the most controversial issues in the XX century. Every time some outstanding assassination involving gun takes place, the public opinion proactively supports gun control, when the laws are getting more stringent, the reaction takes place, because guns are not only for criminal activities but also for self-protection or hunting, etc.

Solely gun control will not prevent us from the rise of criminal activities. If a murderer or a terrorist has an aim, he will find other ways of hurting the victim. Gun control might be efficient only if additionally registration and mandatory safety trainings, and the most important thing - the national educational program forming the cultural perception of humanism, loyalty, and common understanding are in force.

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The list of reasons supporting gun control the top is lead by the horrifying cases of mass assassination, taking place throughout the country. Unmotivated violence and increased aggression on the streets and in public places – malls, schools, and universities lead to the rise of activities supporting gun control.

When you think of all the innocent victims the reasons for gun control are needless. But that is pure emotion, one might claim. Indeed. Still, are not all these lives worth saving?

Let us now turn to more rational reasons supporting gun control. Many people, including myself, believe that owning a gun provides a sense of empowerment, hard to obtain being unarmed.

Controlling the availability of weapon might have added to the overall security nationwide. If there is no temptation, there is no sin.

The world has changed, it is not Wild West anymore, and Thomas Jefferson’s “No man shall ever be debarred the use of arms” (Virginia Constitution, 1776) proves to be against the nation itself more and more often. The story of Seung-Hui Cho, killed 32 people and wounded many more in Virginia Tech massacre, is a valid proof some should definitely be debarred the use of arms. It is symbolical that this act of violence took place in Virginia. Is not it ironic, taking into consideration the above-mentioned Thomas Jefferson’s statement?

There are numerous associations and unions supporting and disputing the issue of gun control. Those that are strongly against turn to the U.S Constitution.

Certainly, the second amendment claiming “…The right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” is still in force, and it is one of the strongest points against gun control. America is a free country, and the freedom is one of the greatest values of every American. Still, the Gun Control Act was necessary to limit the access to weapon of the freedom-loving Americans, whose presidents, like John F. Kennedy, and civil rights movement leaders, like Martin Luther King, Jr. were being shot in the course of the century.

Another reason against gun control is that is does not prevent crime, while significantly limits the possibility of self-defense. Numerous cases of violence on the streets including unarmed and thus practically helpless victims are being registered each day across country. The cases are so numerous people have become used to the violence surrounding them, especially in urban areas. Only cases involving mass violence, like the case in Virginia Tech win the attention of mass media and thus the audience. “Standard” cases are being piled up in the local police departments and are hardly ever covered in the news. Still, the existing level of gun control did not limit the crime rate; it has only disarmed common people, who could have protected themselves otherwise.

In fact, our attitude towards the gun control issue greatly depends on the experience we have in relation to it. The opinion of a mother whose child was killed in a school shooting will most probably oppose the opinion of a raped woman.

As the issue gets more personal, the viewpoint gets clearer, yet is issue of gun control does not cease to be controversial.

Taking into consideration all the pros and cons of gun control, I believe it is not efficient in the fight against the delinquency, but it might be useful in combination with other means of influencing the nation.

Among them the priority should be given to the nationwide program of cultural education, elimination of social tensions and intolerance. Gun registration and mandatory safety trainings should also be introduced across the country. Gun control itself will not eliminate the problem, it is only a pain-killer that will blunt the ache, not cure the illness.

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Dissertation on Fear

Fear is a basic part of human nature, of even life itself for all creatures. We are not born with fear, though. It is something we learn very quickly. Fear is a safety mechanism to keep us from putting ourselves in danger, from causing ourselves pain. Even a little baby when first born has no fear that whether it can survive in this world, but it does develop that fear when its mother wanders too far. 

Fear develops as a reaction to negative things one experiences, basically from pain. Pain can be physical or emotional. Fear and pain are two sides of the same coin. Without pain, we would have no fear. Without fear, we would put ourselves in a place where pain would destroy us. So fear is actually good for us. We must learn to manage fear, though, or fear, too, can destroy us.

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According to Oxford University Press Dictionary, the definition of "fear" is an unpleasant emotion caused by the threat of danger, pain, or harm. It seems like some are born with fear, and others have never experienced it. . Throughout history, man has feared natural forces like hurricanes, floods, blizzards, and volcanos which they already experience that would harm man. Others fear as small as fear roaches, spiders, snakes because of the creatures shapes. Sometimes, fear can bring people benefit like if I see an auto accident on the freeway. I fear of it, however, it will help me pay more attention for what on the road. Also, fear can play a big part in culture, like when parents teach their child the fear of God, or the fear of Hell, both of which help a child learn to be good. However, fear can have some negative effects. Some people can't manage the fear. They allow it to take complete control of all their actions, to act beyond reasonable caution. For example of a quote from German Proverb, "Fear make the wolf bigger than he appear". An intense form of fear is known as a phobia, which is an extreme or irrational of fear. The Phobialist.com lists conditions like Brontophobia, the fear of thunder and lightning, Cyberphobia, the fear of computers or working on a computer, Acrophobia, the fear of heights, Agoraphobia, the fear of crowds, and Hydrophobia, the fear of water. Phobias can be quite disabling. For example, if you have Acrophobia your fear of high places could easily prevent you from working in tall buildings, which could easily keep you from taking a good paying job for an irrational reason. Your fears can keep you from enjoying life or even preoccupy your thinking so that you are unable to work, sleep, or do many things you want to do or need to do. However, phobia can be overcome if man faced what feared him and permit it to pass over him. I seem to have borderline Graphophobia, the fear of writing. If I allowed this to consume me, I would never be able to complete this assignment, this course, or even my college degree.

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This is a small excerpt from dissertation on Fear topic. As free dissertation samples and dissertation proposal examples are plagiarized we recommend you not to use it in your own dissertation or thesis paper. Why not to get online dissertation writing help on Fear from professional dissertation writing company? Top-rated PhD academic writers will write a custom dissertation on any topic and discipline from scratch!

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Dissertation on Water

The Chemical and Physical Properties of Water

Millions of years ago the first forms of life on Earth originated in the oceans. Today, although many plants and animals live on land, they are still dependent on water. Though odourless, transparent, and not very exciting to the taste buds, this life sustaining liquid is perhaps the most important liquid in the world. Covering 75% of the Earth's surface it serves as many purposes which would not be possible if it were not for its specific physical and chemical properties, those of which I will be discussing.

Water consists of two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen. The hydrogen atoms are arranged at a bonding angle of 105 degrees. This makes the water molecule polar because the shape of the molecule is such that it has a positive end and a negative end. This polarity accounts for the strong bonding between the molecules and peculiar properties of water, e.g. Relatively high melting and boiling point, expands when freezes. Because of its polarity water is a good solvent, attracting both the positive and negative charges of other solutions. This is very important because all chemical reactions in cells take place in aqueous solution.

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Water has a pH of 7, which makes it a neutral liquid medium. It's neutrality ensures that reactions taking place within living organisms are not disturbed by being too acidic or basic. Blood in animals and sap in plants consist largely of water. It's serves as a transport medium for food and removal waste materials within living organisms. Water is transparent allowing for sunlight to penetrate deep into water bodies. If it were not, photosynthesis would not take place and few organisms would be able to survive. Transparency also allows for organisms to see in water.

Water has a high specific heat, meaning that it takes large amounts of energy to cause a change in temperature. Because so much energy is needed to raise or lower the temperature, oceans and other bodies of water remain at a relatively constant temperature, ensuring that the organisms that they house are provided with a constant environmental temperature. The same is true for organisms living on land. A constant body temperature is crucial because rates of chemical reactions are greatly affected by temperature. Water also helps minimise temperature fluctuations. Without this property, living organisms would overheat or freeze to death with the slightest change in temperature.

Along with high specific heat water also has a high heat of vaporisation. This property is important because it allows for perspiration in humans and transpiration in plants to take place. Without these cooling processes taking place, living organisms would overheat. The amount of heat man produces in one day would be enough to raise his body temperature to 150 degrees Celsius if it were not for the water present in his body.

Water molecules have a high surface tension, because of the molecules very strong tendency to stick to each other (cohesiveness). This results in water molecules at the surface to crowd together and produce a strong layer, providing a habitat for certain aquatic organisms. The strong cohesive forces also play an important part in the movement of water up the vessels and tracheids of plants. If these forces were weaker, trees would not grown as tall.

The fact that water is less dense as a solid than a liquid is very important. As a result ice floats in water. If the opposite occurred and ice sank in water, frozen water in a lake or ocean would sink to the bottom and pile up to the top, killing all the marine life. The expansion of water when it freezes has important geological effects. Water that enters tiny cracks in rocks creates an enormous amount of pressure when it freezes, expands and then splits or breaks the rock, playing a great part in erosion.

The importance of water as a medium for life springs from its abundance on the Earth's surface. Water is the major constituent of living matter. Seventy percent of our total body weight is water. As ice it is found as glaciers, snow, hail and frost. It occurs in liquid form as dew, rain, in swamps, rivers and oceans. As gas it occurs as fog, steam and clouds. If it were not for the specific properties that allow for water to be so abundant, life on Earth would not exist.

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This is a small excerpt from dissertation on Water topic. As free dissertation samples and dissertation proposal examples are plagiarized we recommend you not to use it in your own dissertation or thesis paper. Why not to get online dissertation writing help on Water from professional dissertation writing company? Top-rated PhD academic writers will write a custom dissertation on any topic and discipline from scratch!

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